Kamis, 08 Juli 2010

Chinese pyramids

The Chinese pyramids are ancient mausoleums and burial mounds built to house the remains of several emperors of China and their imperial relatives. About 38 of them are located around 25 kilometres (16 mi) - 35 kilometres (22 mi) north-west of Xi'an, on the Qin Chuan Plains in Shaanxi Province. The most famous is the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, northeast of Xi'an and 1.7 km west of where the Terracotta Warriors were found. Chinese pyramids were also built during the Han, Tang, Song, and Western Xia dynasties.
Google Earth clearly shows many of them and includes Panoramio photographs of many. They have flat tops, and thus are more similar in shape to the Teotihuacan pyramids north-east of Mexico City, Mexico than to the pyramids in Giza, Egypt. Although known in the West for at least a century, their existence has been made controversial by sensationalist publicity and the problems of Chinese archaeology in early 20th century.

Recognition in the West


The introduction of pyramids in China to popular attention came in two stages. Many early stories were focused on the existence of "Great White Pyramid." U.S. Army Air Corps pilot James Gaussman is said to have seen a white jewel-topped pyramid during a flight between India and China during World War II. Colonel Maurice Sheahan, Far Eastern director of Trans World Airlines, told an eyewitness account of his encounter with a pyramid in the March 28, 1947 edition of The New York Times. A photo of Sheahan's pyramid appeared in The New York Sunday News on March 30, 1947. This photograph later became attributed to James Gaussman. Chris Maier showed that the pyramid in the photo is the Maoling Mausoleum of Emperor Wu of Han, just outside of Xi'an. Alternative writers such as Hartwig Hausdorf (who speculated it was built by aliens) and Phillip Coppens did much to bring them to public attention.
Despite claims to the contrary, the existence of these pyramid-shaped tomb mounds was known by scientists in the West before the publicity caused by the story in 1947. Shortly after the New York Times story, Science News Letter (now Science News) published a short item saying "The Chinese pyramids of that region are built of mud and dirt and are more like mounds than the pyramids of Egypt, and the region is little travelled. American scientists who have been in the area suggest that the height of 1,000 feet (300 m), more than twice as high as any of the Egyptian pyramids, may have been exaggerated, because most of the Chinese mounds of that area are built relatively low. The location, reported 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Sian, is in an area of great archaeological importance, but few of the pyramids have ever been explored."  Victor Segalen visited China in 1913 and wrote about the First Emperor's tomb (and other mound tombs in the region) in Mission Archeologique en Chine (1914): L'art funeraire a l'epoque des Han.
Some of the pyramids of Xi'an are now tourist attractions and several pyramids have small museums attached to them.

The Development of Mound Tombs in China

 There is a long history of building mounded tombs in China, dating back to at least the Shang-Zhou period.

Partial list of Chinese pyramids



 
 from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_pyramids































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Selasa, 22 Juni 2010

Takamatsuzuka Tomb

The Takamatsuzuka Tomb (高松塚古墳 Takamatsuzuka Kofun) or "Tall Pine Tree Ancient Burial Mound" in Japanese is an ancient circular tomb in Asuka village, Nara prefecture, Japan.
The tomb is thought to have been built at some time between the end of the 7th century and the beginning of the 8th century. It was accidentally discovered by a local farmer in the 1960s.
The mound of the tomb was built of alternating layers of clay and sand. It is about 16 meters in diameter and 5 meters high. Digging yielded a burial chamber with painted fresco wall paintings of courtiers in Goguryeo-style garb. The paintings are in full color with red, blue, gold, and silver foil representing four male followers and four abigails together with the Azure Dragon, Black Tortoise, White Tiger, and Vermilion Bird groups of stars. The paintings are designated as a national treasure of Japan.
For whom the tomb was built is unknown, but the decorations suggest it is for a member of the Japanese royal family or a high-ranking nobleman. Candidates include:
  1. Prince Osakabe (? - 705), a son of Emperor Temmu
  2. Prince Yuge (? - 699), also a son of Emperor Temmu
  3. Prince Takechi (654? - 696), also a son of Emperor Temmu, general of Jinshin War, Daijō Daijin
  4. Isonokami Ason Maro (640 - 717), a descendant of Mononobe clan and in charge of Fujiwara-kyo after the capital was moved to Heijo-kyo
  5. Kudara no Konikishi Zenko (617-700), a son of the last king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
The Cultural Affairs Agency of Japan is considering taking apart the stone chamber and reassembling it elsewhere to prevent further deterioration to its wall paintings. A painting called Asuka Bijin, or "beautiful women", is one of the murals in the tomb facing deterioration. The unusual preservation method is being considered because the tomb's current situation makes it impossible to prevent further damage and stop the spread of mold.
Unlike the Kitora Tomb, also in Asuka, removing pieces of the Takamatsuzuka wall plaster and reinforcing them for conservation appears difficult because the plaster has numerous tiny cracks.
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Shinju-kyo

Japanese Shinjūkyō (神獣鏡, "deity and beast mirror") is an ancient type of round bronze mirror decorated with images of gods and animals from Chinese mythology. The obverse side has a polished mirror and the reverse has relief representations of legendary Chinese shen (神 "spirit; god"), Xian (仙 "transcendent; immortal"), and legendary creatures.

The shinjūkyō style of bronze mirror originated in China and was frequently produced during the Han Dynasty, Three Kingdoms, and Six Dynasties (1st-6th centuries CE). With the spread of Chinese bronze casting technology, shinjūkyō were also produced in Japan and the Lelang Commandery and Daifang Commandery in Korea. The ca. 297 CE Wei zhi (魏志 "Records of Wei"), which is part of the Sanguo zhi (三國志 "Records of the Three Kingdoms"), has the first historical reference to bronze mirrors in Japan. It chronicles tributary relations between Queen Himiko of Wa (Japan) and the Wei court, and records that in 239 CE, Emperor Cao Rui sent presents to Himiko, including "one hundred bronze mirrors" (tr. Tsunoda 1951:15).
Archeological excavations of Japanese tombs from the Kofun period (3rd-7th centuries CE) have revealed numerous shinjūkyō, and Japanese archeologists divide them into subtypes including:
  • sankakuen-shinjūkyō (三角縁神獣鏡, "triangular-rimmed deity and beast mirror")
  • gamontai-shinjūkyō (画文帯神獣鏡, "wide image-band deity and beast mirror")
  • hirabuchi-shinjūkyō (平縁神獣鏡, "flat-rimmed deity and beast mirror")
Kurotsuka kofun tomb excavated in Nara Prefecture contained 33 sankakuen-shinjūkyō bronze mirrors. Some scholars (Edwards 1998, 1999, Nishikawa 1999) believe they are the original mirrors that Emperor Cao Rui presented to Queen Himiko, but others disagree.


from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinju-kyo
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Kōgoishi

Kōgoishi (神篭石 or 神籠石) are earthenwork structures, on a stone foundation, constructed in Japan during the Asuka period, particularly in areas around Fukuoka, on the island of Kyūshū. The name "kōgoishi" means "stones of divine protection", a name given them by the Meiji period archaeologist Tsuboi Shōgorō, who conjectured that they served as spiritual or practical protection for sacred sites.
Kōgoishi date to the 6th or 7th century CE, and are found predominantly in northern Kyūshū and on the shores of the Inland Sea. The longest one to be found, at 2.3 km in length, lies near the summit of Mt. Kōra, near Fukuoka. The stones there are roughly one meter long, 50 cm high and 70 cm thick.
Scholars after Tsuboi determined that the structures are most likely the remains of practical, military fortifications, and were unlikely to have significant spiritual connections. The style and form of the ruins matches many in Korea; the period when these were built was one of flourishing contact with Korea, and it is theorized that Korean stoneworkers, artisans, and architects may have played a role in the construction of these fortresses. Some scholars believe that some kōgoishi were built in anticipation of an attack from Korea, but little evidence has been found to confirm this.


from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dgoishi
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Haniwa

The Haniwa (埴輪) are terra cotta clay figures which were made for ritual use and buried with the dead as funerary objects during the Kofun period (3rd to 6th century AD) of the history of Japan.
During the Kofun period, a highly aristocratic society with militaristic rulers developed. The cavalry wore iron armor, carried swords and other weapons, and used advanced military methods like those of Northeast Asia. Many of them are represented in Haniwa figurines for funerary purposes.
The most important of the haniwa were found in southern Honshū—especially the Kinai region around Nara—and northern Kyūshū. Haniwa grave offerings were made in numerous forms, such as horses, chickens, birds, fans, fish, houses, weapons, shields, sunshades, pillows, and male and female humans. Besides decorative and spiritual reasons of protecting the deceased in his afterlife, these figures also served as a sort of retaining wall for the burial mound.
Because these haniwa display the contemporary clothing, hairstyle, farming tools, and architecture, these sculptures are important as a historical archive of the Kofun Period.

The origin of Haniwa


The origin of haniwa started during the latter part of the Yayoi Era around the Kingdom of Kibi. During this time special earthenware figurines and bowls started to appear on top of the tombs of leaders. The early sculptures exceeded 1 meter (3 feet) in length. They consisted of a cylindrical portion which represented the torso, and a skirt-shaped portion at the base, which represented the legs. Many times a special insignia or pattern would be displayed on the torso. Sometimes an obi would be placed around the torso portion of the sculpture. These sculptures are thought to have been used as part of a funeral ritual. Other than the Kibi area, the only other place these sculptures were found was in the Izumo province.
During the latter part of the 3rd century AD, these sculptures started to appear on top of the imperial grave mounds in the Kinai region. During this time more elaborate haniwa would appear along with earthenware bowls. It is believed that the movement of these sculptures and haniwa from the Kibi region to the Kinai region is indicative of an increase in the importance.

Later development of the Haniwa

During the earlier part of the Kofun period (latter 3rd century A.D.) the only earthenware haniwa were of the cylindrical variety; however, towards early 4th century AD, shield and other tool-shaped haniwa started to appear. Additionally, during the middle Kofun period (mid-5th century C.E.) shrine maiden, horse, dog and other animal-shaped haniwa were introduced. As the practice of having ceremonial burial mounds declined in the mid 6th century C.E., haniwa became rarer in the Kinai region; however, the haniwa were still made in abundance in the Kantō region.

Significance of the Haniwa

Originally, the cylindrical type haniwa were set on top of the funeral mounds, so it is believed that they had a
purpose in funeral rituals; however, as the haniwa became more developed, they were set towards the outside of the grave area, and it is thought that they were used as boundary markers to mark the borders of the gravesite.
There is a theory that the soul of the deceased would reside in the haniwa, as the earlier haniwa were placed on top of the funeral mounds. There are haniwa that are equipped with weapons and armor, and these are also thought to be containers for souls. The armor and weapons would serve the purpose of driving away evil spirits and protecting the buried ruler from calamity. Because the horse and animal shaped haniwa were normally neatly arranged into a line, it is believed that they were part of a sending-off ceremony.

The Haniwa in modern society

Although the religious implications of the haniwa have largely declined in modern society, the sculptures are still prized by many for their aesthetic and historical significance. The works of Shojiro Ishibashi, for example, were heavily influenced by the haniwa. They have been accepted as "Pure Art", according to Time magazine. Beyond simple appreciation as artistic sculptures, modern popular culture has, in some cases, even portrayed the haniwa as containing an actual sentient entity and not just as a simple empty sculpture. The most common portrayal depicts the haniwa with a rounded, pot-like shape, bearing two deep eyes, a wide mouth, and two featureless "arms" on opposite sides of the "pot".
The portrayal of living haniwa has—since the late 1990s—become widespread, being featured in trading cards, video games, and television. However, as with many modern portrayals of ancient spiritual beliefs (such as the banshee), the cultural aspect of haniwa is almost always overlooked. Instead, in many of the depictions, the haniwa is primarily presented as a ghostlike, malevolent creature, without attempting to retain the historical aspect of the haniwa's religious nature.


from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haniwa
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Natsumi Temple Complex

The former Natsumi Temple (夏見廃寺 Natsumi-haiji) was a Buddhist temple complex during the Nara period in the city of Nabari, Mie Prefecture, Japan. It was built under a vow of Princess Oku in remembrance of her dead father, Emperor Temmu. The structures were burnt out in the end of the 10th century, but the foundations were found through the excavation by Kyoto University in May 1946. Today, the site of this temple is a part of Nabari City Central Park.
The foundations of the main hall, a pagoda, a lecture hall, and surrounding buildings are preserved.
Investigation makes it clear that Natsumi Temple's main hall had the same design as that of Asuka's Yamada-dera, which was one of this period's major temples. The fact means that the priests of this temple were keeping good connections with the central government.
The Exhibition Hall near the site displays and explains the articles dug up at the site and the molded Buddhas, with which it is said the main hall was decorated.




from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natsumi_Temple_complex
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Mitsumine Castle

Mitsumine Castle (三峰城 Mitsumine-jō) was a castle located in present-day Sabae, Fukui Prefecture, Japan. It was constructed during the Nanbokucho period of the 14th century (part of the early Muromachi period). In 1337, Following the war between the Southern and Northern courts, Mitsumine Castle was built as a strong strategic point atop Mt. Mitsumine (from which it received its name). It was governed over by Yoshisuke Wakiya, under the orders of Yoshisada Nitta, the high ranking head of the Southern Court; however, in 1340 Shigeyuki Miyama of the Northern Court laid siege to the castle. This siege ended with the death of Miyama and destruction of the castle.


from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsumine_Castle
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